Police Technology Essay Example for Free

Police Technology Essay 1. Introduction A gun may be a useful tool to arrest a suspect in a traditional crime scene, but what about a crime committed on the Internet to steal billions of dollars in a few minutes or even confidential information? Will guns be useful in this case? According to Goodman, â€Å"the world isn’t run by weapons anymore, or energy, or money, it’s run by ones and zeros It’s not about who has the most bullets. Art’s about who controls the information –what we see and hear, how we work, what we think. It’s all about information.† (p.466) With the technological revolution we have nowadays, that changed every aspect of our lives representing new threats and new crimes, police officers should be equipped with new technological tools or techniques to be able to face these new challenges. This paper aims at giving an idea about police technology and how does technology help police officers by defining the term â€Å"police technology†, shading the light on history of police technology, and giving some of the impacts of technology on police work and practice. 2. Definitions To understand exactly how does technology help police officers, this section will define what is meant by both terms â€Å"technology† and â€Å"police technology†. 2.1 Technology The Britannica Concise Encyclopedia defines technology as â€Å"Application of knowledge to the practical aims of human life or to changing and manipulation the human environment. Technology includes the use of materials, tools, techniques, and sources of power to make life easier or more pleasant and work more productive. Whereas science is concerned with how and why things happen, technology focuses on making thing happen.† 2.2 Police Technology According to Encyclopedia Britannica the term â€Å"police technology† refers to â€Å"the wide range of scientific and technological methods, techniques, and equipment used in policing.† 3. Police Technology in History and Literature This section will shade the light on the history of police technology since 1840 when officers only had guns and night-light sticks, â€Å"then came technological progress with the invention of the patrol wagon and signal service (which have) effected a revolution in police methods.† (Seaskate, Inc). (See police technology timeline in Table 1) â€Å"The adoption of information technology by police departments in the united States is a relatively recent phenomenon. Before 1987, less than 2% of the 2.200 US police departments with fewer than 100 employees used computers. And as recently as 2003, only 40% of police departments had mobile computer terminals.† (CentrePience) Moving to information technology,   â€Å"only in recent years have many agencies found the use of information technologies significantly helpful. Examples include fingerprinting databases, computerized crime mapping, and records management systems doing everything from inventory property and cataloging evidence to calculating solvability factors.† (Seaskate, Inc) 3.1 The political era (1840-1920) This period witnessed technological advances such as â€Å"telegraph, telephone, police callboxes, Bertillon system of criminal identification† (Seaskate, Inc) and (Stewart, R. W.). â€Å"The advent of fingerprinting in the 1900s and of crime laboratories in the 1920s greatly augmented the police capacity to solve crimes†. (Seaskate, Inc) 3.2 The professional model era or Nationalization of Crime (1920-1970) This period witnessed efforts that tried to â€Å"rid the government of undesirable political influences and create what they deemed professional police departments† (Seaskate, Inc). â€Å"The model was the crime laboratory in Berkeley, California, Police Department then the FBI inaugurated its own laboratory which eventually became recognized as the most comprehensive and technologically advanced forensic laboratory in the world† (Seaskate, Inc). This period â€Å"saw the widespread police adoption of the automobile and the introduction of two-way radios† (Seaskate, Inc). Then, in response to rapidly rising crime rates and urban disorders, the Crime Commission was established in the 1960s (Seaskate, Inc). This period witnessed the nationalization of crime. â€Å"In 1967, the Crime Commission produced a long report that gave recommendations, 11 of them dealing with police technology (Seaskate, Inc). The President’s Crime Commission found that the nation’s criminal justice system suffered from a significant Science and technology gap (Seaskate, Inc). Then came â€Å"the advent of 911 after the commission called for establishment of a single telephone number that Americans could use to call the police† (Seaskate, Inc). The computerization for American policing was a result for the commission’s recommendations and the 911 system (Seaskate, Inc). â€Å"The 911 system became enhanced (E911) when computer got smarter, showing the telephone number, address, and in some cases, the name of the person who owned the number† (Seaskate, Inc). â€Å"One of the most important computer-based innovations in American policing was the advent of National Crime Information Center (NCIC), administered by FBI† (Seaskate, Inc). Computers also were â€Å"essential in the development of Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS)† (Seaskate, Inc). 3.3 The Community Policing Era or Computerization of American Policing (Since 1970) The introduction of computers into policing corresponded to the beginning of the third and current era in American policing or â€Å"the Community Policing Era† from 1970 up till now (Seaskate, Inc). â€Å"In 1995, the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) was created by the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994†. (ITI, p.3) With funding provided by COPS and other federal and state grant programs, the use of computers in law enforcement gained widespread acceptance in law enforcement agencies of all sizes. (ITI p.3) 4. The Impact of Technology on Police Work Technology has had its impacts on police work especially since the process of computerization of American policing (Figure1 in the appendices shows trends in technology use by police agencies). According to Davis, J. N., â€Å"the continuing development of computer technology has had critical impacts on law enforcement. Mobile data terminals in police cars, automatic vehicle locator systems, and computer-assisted dispatch are now commonly found in police departments. The use of expert systems and artificial intelligence by police agencies in the United States and Canada is on the increase. Examples can be found in agencies ranging from small rural Alliance, Nebraska to urban Baltimore County, Maryland†. (p.1) This section will show how does technology affect police work either in increasing effectiveness, enhancing officer safety, or assisting law enforcement agencies to meet new challenges of terrorism and cyber crimes. 4.1 Increased Effectiveness Research showed that â€Å"police departments that adopted computers together with IT management/governance practices such as CompStat did experience reduced property and violent crime and significantly increased crime clearance rates (by around 8%). Thus, researchers concluded that computers do increase the effectiveness of police work, but only if police work is substantially reorganized to take advantage of their presence† (CentrePiece, p.2). Also according to ITI, â€Å"Significant technological breakthroughs have resulted in products that have increased their crime solving effectiveness† (P.4). For example â€Å"studies led to the widespread use of night vision gear by today’s police agencies† (ITI, p.4). A technology such as fingerprint reader â€Å"has resulted in the creation of automatic fingerprint identification systems (AFIS)†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"AFIS has resulted in the clearance of thousands of crimes that would have otherwise gone unsolved†. (ITI, P.4) The â€Å"enhanced† 911 â€Å"allowed dispatchers to see on their computers screen the address and telephone number from which a 911 emergency call originated† (ITI, p.4).   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The miniaturization of body microphones and closed circuit television has benefited law enforcement in a variety of investigative and crime prevention initiatives†. (ITI, P.4) 4.2 Changed the Role of Police and How They Carry Out Their Duties Technology has changed the role of both police officers and law enforcement agencies. â€Å"With the introduction of the Community Oriented Policing model, a dramatic change occurred in how agencies measured their effectiveness†. (ITI, P.3) The previous section showed that COPS was a result for introducing computers into policing.   â€Å"The emphasis on quick response to calls for services and the number of arrests made and crimes cleared was replaced by the reduction of crimes committed†. (ITI, P.3) â€Å"The COPS program promoted the development of close/citizen relationships with a focus on improving the quality of life on a neighborhood-to-neighborhood basis. From this effort grew programs such as neighborhood Policing and Problem Solving Policing† (ITI, P.3). â€Å"For the COPS concept to be successful officers needed timely information about crime patterns and other social problems occurring on their beats†. (ITI, P.3) â€Å"In police practice the possibility to access and use electronic records has opened up a new way of gathering information for police officers. This has created and developed new ways of working for police officers: they can gather more information when involved in operational work as well as when they are present physically at the police station†. (Borglund, E.) 4.3 Improved Record Keeping and Report Writing Computers have led to a key advantage â€Å"improved recordkeeping†. â€Å"Research showed that introducing computers for record-keeping did increase the amount of recorded ‘minor crimes’ such as larceny† (CentrePiece, p.2). According to Davis, J. N., â€Å"police report writing has also evolved with changes in technology, especially the use of lap-top computers. The continued development of new computer technologies will also bring changes in police report writing†. (p.1) 4.4 Enhances Officer Safety â€Å"Significant technological breakthroughs have resulted in products that have improved officer safety† (ITI, P.4). â€Å"Soft body armor has saved hundreds of officers from death or serious injury† (ITI, P.4). â€Å"Information used in conjunction with Computer Aided Dispatch software allowed dispatchers to warn officers of potential dangers and the history of previous calls at locations prior to their arrival†. (ITI, P.4) The use of safe weapons such as â€Å"non-lethal weapons such as the Taser, beanbag shells and pepper mace had been added to the list of force options available to officers in the field† (ITI, p.4). 4.5 Assist Local Law Enforcement Agencies Meet the New Challenges of Terrorism and Cyber Crime According to Reichert, K. â€Å"creative uses of information technology have the potential to increase the capacity and effectiveness of law enforcement in fulfilling its complex mission today. Including increased demands in the post-September 11 World†. (p.4) â€Å"The pace of the use of technology in law enforcement continues to accelerate. New technologies such as the use of DNA for the criminal investigation, the growth of AFIS and Livescan fingerprinting systems, GPS tracking, and reverse-911 software are all computer dependent systems now being more widely used by agencies around the country†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"New hardware such as Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs) and other wireless devices such as web-enabled cellular telephones are changing the way information is collected and shared†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"The 911 systems have precipitated the use of computerized mapping and links between 911 systems and computer aided dispatch software† (ITI, p.4). â€Å"Incident-based reporting is being implemented across the country requiring new records management software designed to capture and report crime statistics electronically† (ITI, p.4). â€Å"The 1995 Oklahoma City bombing and the 2001 attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon significantly increased awareness for the need to share information between law enforcement agencies at all levels of government†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"Antiquated radio systems are being replaced so that multiple agencies can communicate during joint operations and disaster responses. Integration of computer databases is being developed for intelligence gathering and criminal investigation†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"Detection technology, protection equipment and training are being provided to public safety personnel to meet the challenges of a nuclear, biological or chemical threat as well as an attack using conventional weapons†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"The use of the Internet for the commission of crimes is increasing at an alarming rate†. (ITI, p.4) â€Å"Thieves, hackers, hate groups, pedophiles, cyberspace stalkers, drug cartels and terrorist groups freely use the Internet to carry out their illegal activities†. (ITI, p.4) The Internet also offers many benefits to law enforcement† (ITI, p.5). â€Å"The ability to share information between agencies and with the public has been greatly enhanced by the use of the internet†.

Preparation for Nursing Mentorship

Preparation for Nursing Mentorship Name: W. Effah Domain 2 of the NMC (2008) Standards for learning and assessment in practice asks mentors to ‘Facilitate learning for a range of students, within a particular area of practice where appropriate, encouraging self-management of learning opportunities and providing support to maximise individual potential.’ Supervision and supporting the learning of student nurses in clinical placement has been the professional obligation and central constituent of Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) registered nurses. In this essay many issues are broached, due to the limitations of space and are treated comprehensively. It is anticipated that the reader will appreciate the magnitude of the effort of NMC registered nurses to facilitate the learning of a range of students in clinical practice. The brief of the essay will use the critical and systematic approach to consider how mentors facilitate the learning of a range of students in clinical practice in selecting appropriate learning opportunities to meet individual needs. In addition, it will consider how students can be supported to critically reflect upon their learning experiences in order to enhance future learning. With the relevant literature, it will appraise the learning needs of students and the provision of a wide range of support to maximize the individual potential. The challenges of mentoring students in clinical environment will be also analysed. Finally, all the relevant evidences will be compared and contrasted and own suggestions made with examples in practice where appropriate. The NMC (2008) describes a mentor as a facilitator, an assessor and a supervisor of students in clinical practice. To Stenfors-Hayes T. et al(2011), a mentor is anyone who shares what it means to be a nurse, who can answer questions and give advice and finally one who listens and stimulates reflection. However, from a review of Chandan and Watts(2012) a mentor goes far beyond the description above and not only advises and assesses, but in addition guides and ultimately acts as role model. Due to the wide range of students and the level of knowledge, mentors play an important role in supporting students to learn from the experiences they meet during their clinical placement. Consequently, it is for mentors to select the appropriate learning opportunities that are available and can be utilised by a range of students.(NMC2008) According to Levett-Jones and Bourgeois(2012) it is significant for mentors to know what level the student is early on in the placement to enable them know their level of competence. Hence, Clarke at al( 2002) suggested that, students should be allowed and encouraged to self-evaluate their competence prior to placement. Walsh(2010) added that regardless of the stage or year a student is, they may vary extremely in their levels of competence. In practice there were two students, one straight out of school and another student with care work experience. It is noted that the level of understanding in clinical practice was different. In order to enhance their knowledge two different approaches are needed to mentor them. This was stressed by Walsh(2010)that, the understanding of the students’ level of competence is more vital as they advance in the course of their training as mentors can allocate them to perform more tasks. An important skill for students is self-confidence and students who lack self-confidences as learners hardly discover success. The lack of self-confidence may be due to the lack the opportunities to develop self-direction. (Myers and Anderson,2012). Cash(2011) added that some students are over confident and have flight idea regarding their own levels of competence and a mentor should be wary of that. The role of the mentor is to Garvey et al(2009), the facilitating learners to develop their self confidence, independence and maturity. This is supported by Rogers’ 10 principles of adult learning (1983) cited in Jaques and Salmon(2007), that mentors can facilitate in the learning when they let students participate responsibly in the learning process actively thereby enabling them to build self-confidence. In addition self-initiated learning, independence, creativity, self-reliance, self-criticism and self-evaluation are very important in facilitating the learning of the students. NMC(2008) stated that a conducive learning environment with the appropriate professional and inter professionals, can be valued in a practical way to enhance and support the learning outcomes for students. From the classic surveys in the 1980’s, a dominant factor of the learning environment is the qualified staff as well as the role of a ward manager. Not only do they provide a good learning structure and have an important effect on learning environment but can serve as role-models for clinical practice.(Quinn, 2007) However, Stuart(2007) stated that due to the frequent interactions and activities, the clinical environment is regularly noisy which makes the clinical environment unpredictable and unstable. Stuart(2013) added that most learners will perceive the clinical area as a fear-provoking area which may limit their learning. A study by Phillips(2007) stated that the term â€Å"scary†, â€Å"frightening†, â€Å"terrified† and â€Å"anxious† were used to describe their early days in practice placement. Wilkes (2006) argued that, the abilities, qualities and attitudes of individual mentors are more essential than the learning environment whilst, Quinn (2007) emphasised that students are responsible for their own learning outcomes from an environment and they are not there just to observe. Finally, learners learn in different ways. Individuals will have a dominant learning style, either visual, auditory or kinesthetic. In addition to the dominant learning style, there is often a preferred mix of different learning styles. Research shows that an average of 60-72% of adults are visual learners, 12-18% are auditory learners 18-30% kinaesthetic. It is therefore the role of the mentors to identify the dominant learning style of the students. (Britton , 2010). As 60% of adult learners have preference for visual learning, it means that mentors can support them with flip charts and things they can see. In order to enhance future learning of students in clinical practice, the NMC (2008) standards for learning and assessment require mentors to support students to reflect upon their learning experiences. Howatson-Jones(2013), stressed that it is important for the novice practitioner to develop an understanding of their role and support the learning of new skills by reflection. To do so reflection can occur within the experience or by looking back at the experience. In addition OCarrol and Park(2007), mentioned that, nurses as well students can reflect in different ways at different times. When working with a service user, students can reflect to their mentors on what is happening between them (reflection-in-action). It is also possible to reflect on the same interaction after what has happened (reflection-on-action). For the Gibbs(1988) reflective cycle is to describe what happened, feelings, evaluation, description and action plan. On 5 cue questions, John (1995) cycle enables students to break down their practice and critically reflect on the process and outcomes.(Driscoll,2007) Driscoll’s â€Å"What? model (2000) structured reflection describes the event, an analysis of the event, proposed actions following the event, actioning the new learning from that experience in clinical practice and experience practice environment.(Driscoll,2007) For Walsh(2010), it is important for nurses to adopt the â€Å"action research model† that was originally developed by Kurst Lewin(1946). It is cycle of activities with ongoing evaluation and improvement. The key stages are for nurses to reflect upon what is happening, explain what is happening, carry out a literature research, plan a change, implement it, observe, evaluate its results, amend the plan and repeat the cycle. Hinchliff et al(2008) emphasised that, the core of professional nursing practice is reflection and is a skill that may develop with experience like clinical skills, which needs to be practised and learned. To them critical reflection is looking at the individual clinical practice. It considers how the individual will act in an event and evaluate his performance against what the real situation would have been. Johns(2000) added that the practitioner can see critical reflection as a window where he can focus on his lived experience which can help him to deal with, identify and work to resolve the contradictions in his practice involving what is desirable and actual clinical practice. White et al(2006) is of the view that critical reflection is a process by which practitioners identify the assumptions central to their practice, locate the historical and cultural source of these assumptions, question the meaning of the assumptions and develop alternative ways of acting. On the other hand Hinchliff et al(2008), is of the view that, critical reflection is cognitive, emotional and experiential of assumptions embedded in actions or experience. It is a review and re-evaluation of events and reworking of concepts and practice, based on this evaluation. Subsequently, Driscoll(2007) reinforces this, by emphasising that, critical reflection provides a mechanism for mentors to support and guide students and gives the opportunity to stimulate new ideas and thinking. Therefore the role of the mentor is to provide support for the students to reflect on their practice and to give constructive feed back.(Howatson-Jones, 2013). As advocated by Levett–Jones et al(2009) students on clinical placement are encouraged by the writer and other professionals to critically reflect on their experiences. Students are supported to critically reflect on their practice using any of the reflective models that best suits them and provided with a constructive feedback on their performance. This enhances their personal and clinical development in the delivery of high quality care. According to Walsh(2010), mentors that implement reflection in their practice will be a source of inspiration for student nurses. Furthermore, feedback is part of a valuable learning and is so essential not only for students in practice but also other professionals. It helps the students by offering them a comprehensible direction on how to improve their practice.(Howatson-Jones, 2013) Hinchliff et al(2008) argued that a challenge to critical reflection is that, it is always difficult to analyse ones own event and would benefit from another’s expertise or viewpoint. So it is important for nurses to support students on placement and to critically reflect. OCarrol and Park(2007), is of the view that listening, empathy, assertiveness and managing change are additional skills that are essential for reflection. One of the disadvantages of reflection according to Walsh(2010) is the doubling of staff time and that mentors and students may reflect differently since they are not one and the same person. Furthermore, as mentors assume the role of the expert in demonstrating skills, there is a risk of feeling uncomfortable, thinking their weaknesses may be exposed. However, Howatson-Jones(2013 ), without critical reflection, nurses cannot not deliver high quality care and is a source of inspiration for students in their future clinical practice. Furthermore, when reflection takes place it enables not only the development of knowledge by the student nurses beginning clinical practice but also its articulation by qualified nurses.(Elder et al, 2011) As set by the NMC(2008) code of conduct nurses have a professional duty to facilitate students and others to develop their competence. However, Stuart(2013) stressed that clinical practice assessment is challenging and time consuming and carries with and the burden of responsibility and answerable. In addition, they face the demand of the day-to-day clinical workload with the additional role and obligation as a mentor. Furthermore, some mentors feel not recognised and rewarded for taking additional roles. (Bray and Nettleton, 2007). In Walsh(2010) opinion, mentoring is by no means a one-way-traffic. It brings with it increased professional role, being updated by and learning from the student, developing teaching skills, adding to personal profile and increased self-esteem. Mentors are hesitant to fail students due to the fear of more documentation, the university overturning the fail and dealing with disputes.(Stuart, 2013). Abbot(2009) emphasised that the relationship formed between the mentor and the student may affect the ability to conduct an objective assessment and fail a student. Kinnell and Hughes(2010) added that, the relationship between the student and the mentor to be successful depends on each respecting and understanding the other. For Casey and Clark(2011) the relationship should be a professional one and that there should be clear boundaries from the start of the placement. Mentors, for this purpose, should distinguish their association from that of a friend. By doing this, there would be balance which would give the mentor the opportunity to carry out appropriate evaluation and feedback. Furthermore, mentors should be given support by ward managers and other professionals in mentoring students.(O’Driscoll et al, 2010). This essay has attempted to explore how mentors can facilitate the learning for a range of students, within the writers practice area. In doing so, it is realised that the benefits of mentoring for the mentor, the mentee and the NHS organisation in offering an exceptional opportunities for nurses to influence and build up the practitioners of the future cannot be overemphasized. It is also established that the learning environment is crucial in maximizing the learning of students. Additionally, it is important that students reflect upon their learning experiences in other to recognise their strengths and any areas that need further development. The writer is of the view that the relationship that develops between the mentor in facilitating the learning of a range of students can sometimes become complex. From the writers own experience, it is therefore necessary that the mentor by offering support should set out the ground rules initially and should be objective and disciplined. Ultimately, mentors should exercise caution when establishing relationship with students otherwise the final assessment can be subjective. Word count 2167 Reference: Abbott H. (2009) The experiences and challenges of mentorship in clinical practice in pre-registration education, Technic: The Journal of Operating Department Practice, 5 pp.9-13. Bray, L. and Nettleton, P. (2007) ‘Assessor or mentor? Role confusion in professional education’. Nurse Education Today 27(8), pp. 848–855. Britton, J. J. (2010) Effective group coaching: Tried and tested tools and resources for optimum couching results. Ontario: John Wily Sons. 4. Burton, R., Ormrod, G. and Holland, K. (2011) Nursing: transition to professional practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Casey, D. C. and Clark, L. (2011) ‘Roles and responsibilities of the student nurse mentor: an update’ British Journal of Nursing 20 (15) pp.933-937 6. Cash, R. M. (2011) Advancing differentiation: Thinking and learning for the 21st Century. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing Chandan, M. and Watts, C. (2012). Mentoring and pre-registration nurse education. The Willis Commission, Technical Paper 4. London. RCN. [Online]. Available at: http://www.williscommission.org.uk/_data/assets/pdf_file/0009/479934/Mentoring_and_pre-registration_nurse_education.pdf (Accessed 17 March 2014). Clarke, D., Davies, J., and McNee. P.(2002). The case for a children’s nursing skills laboratory. Padiatric Nursing, 14(7), pp.36-39. Cook, M. and Hyrkà ¤s, K. (2010) â€Å"Interprofessional and team working Issue†. Journal of Nursing Management Volume 18, Issue 3 April 2010. Oxford: John Wiley Sons Ltd Creed F. and Spiers C. (2010) Care of the acutely Ill adult: an essential guide for nurses. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 11. Driscoll, J.(2007) Practising clinical supervision: A reflective approach for healthcare professionals. 2nd edn. Oxford: Balliere Tindal Publishers. Garvey, R., Stokes, P. and Megginson, D.(2009) Coaching and mentoring: theory and practice. London: Sage Publications. Jaques, D. and Salmon, G.(2007). Learning in groups: A handbook for face-to-face and online environments. 4th edn. Oxon: Routledge Kinnell, D. and Hughes, P.( 2010) Mentoring nursing and healthcare students. London: Sage Publications. Levett-Jones, T. and Lathlean, J.(2009)†The Ascent to Competence Conceptual Framework: an outcome of a study of belongingness†. Journal of Clinical Nursing 18. pp. 2870–2879. Levett-Jones, T., and Bourgeois, S.(2009) The clinical placement: A nursing survival guide. 2nd edn. Oxford: Balliere Tindal Publishers. McKenzie, K. (2004) Mentoring: it’s a two-way street. RCM-Midwives Journal. 7 (12), 526-528. Midgley, K. (2006) Pre-registration student nurses’ perception of the hospital learning environment during clinical placements. Nurse Education Today, 26 (4), 338-345. Moscaritolo, L.M. (2009) Interventional strategies to decrease nursing student anxiety in the clinical learning environment. The Journal of Nursing Education. 48 (1). pp.17-23. Myers, S. and Anderson, C.(2012) Dimensions in mentoring: A continuum of practice from beginning teachers to teacher leaders. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008) Standards to support learning and assessment in practice: NMC Standards for mentors, practice teachers and teachers. 2nd edn. London: Nursing and Midwifery Council. O’Driscoll, M.F., Allan, H.T. and Smith, P.A. (2010) ‘Still looking for leadership – Who is responsible for student nurses’ learning in practice?’ Nurse Education Today 30 pp. 212–217. Ousey, K. (2009) ‘Socialization of student nurses: the role of the mentor’, Learning in Health and Social Care, 8, pp.175-184. Phillips, B. (2007) Nursing care and understanding the experiences of others: a Gadamerian perspective. Nursing Inquiry 2007 14(1), 89–94 Price, B. (2007) Developing skills for practice. (Course study guide). Milton Keynes :The Open University Quinn F. M., and Hughes, S. J. (2007) Quinns principles and practice of nurse education: 5th edn. Andover: Nelson Thornes Limited. Rogers, C.(1983), (cited in Jaques, D. and Salmon, G., 2007) Freedom to learn for the 80. New York: Merrill Wright Stenfors-Hayes, T., Hult, H., and Dahlgren, L. O.(2011) â€Å"What does it mean to be a mentor in medical education?† Medical Teacher 2011, Vol. 33, No. 8 , pp. e423-e428 Stuart, C. C.(2013) Mentoring, learning and assessment in clinical Practice. 3rd edn. London: Churchill Livingstone Stuart, C.C. (2007) Assessment, supervision and support in clinical practice: A guide for nurses, midwives and other health professionals. 2nd edn. London: Churchill Livingstone. 31. Walsh, D. (2010) The nurse mentors handbook: supporting students in clinical practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press Wilkes, Z. (2006)The student-mentor relationship: a review of the literature. Nursing Stand 20 (37): 42–7

The Internet Has Emerged English Language Essay

The Internet Has Emerged English Language Essay Over the past few years, the Internet has emerged as a prominent new technology. The influence of such a powerful technological tool has pervaded all aspects of the educational, business, and economic sectors of our world. Regardless of ones familiarity with the Internet, it is repeatedly made reference to. News broadcasters and commercials, for example, will now provide web addresses, and even the recent movie, The Net was sparked by the impact of this new technology (Mike, 1996). Regardless of whether one uses the Internet or not, one must be clear about the fact that the we have entered a new information age and the Internet is here to stay.Because the use of the Internet is widespread in numerous fields and domains, without a doubt, it also carries great potential for educational use, specifically second and foreign language education. This paper will therefore focus on the following questions: 1) What is the Internet? 2) How can various facets of the Internet be used in the seco nd and foreign language classroom? 3) What are the benefits of employing the Internet in such a setting? 4) What are the disadvantages or obstacles the Internet presents in a second language classroom? Lastly, the implications of using the Internet in second language classrooms will be discussed. The Internet is the latest in a series of technological innovations for second language education. In order to understand the role of the Internet, it would be useful to provide a brief history of technology and language teaching, present a survey of the technological resources available to second language learners, and, finally consider the role of the Internet and its possibilities. Technology and Foreign Language Education: A Brief History Technology and foreign language education are no stranger to one another. In the sixties and seventies, language laboratories were being installed in numerous educational settings. The traditional language laboratory was comprised of a series of booths, each providing a cassette deck, and accompanying microphone and headphone. Teachers monitored their students interactions by using a central control panel. The basic premise behind this technology was that if verbal behavior was modeled, and then reinforced, students would quickly learn the language in question. The language lab activities were therefore grounded in a stimulus-response behavior pattern. The more drill practice the students encountered, the faster they would learn the second language. While the language laboratory was a positive step in linking technology and language education, it was soon recognized that such activities were both tedious and boring for learners. Furthermore, the amount of student-teacher interaction was minimal, and individualized instruction was irrelevant. Besides the pedagogical deficiencies, the audio equipment was cumbersome and prone to breakdown, and had only one function-to disseminate auditory input. These factors put together led to a shift to the communicative approach to second language education, namely, computer assisted language learning.Microcomputers and quality CALL software provided yet another medium for language learning. Its potential as both a teaching and learning tool are widely written about in the educational literature. At present, there are a variety of computer applications available including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation tutors, spell checkers, electronic workbooks, writing and reading programs, as well as various authoring packages to allow instructors to create their own exercises to supplement existing language courses. In addition to the range of software available, CALL has also been shown to increase learner motivation (Blake, 1987 ). Chun and Brandl (1992) also propose that the interactive and multimedia capabilities of the computer make it an attractive teaching/learning tool. Computers can provide immediate feedback to students and students can work at an individualized pace. Software can be designed to include sound, graphics, video, and animation. Moreover, information is presented in a non-linear sequence enabling learners to select the exercises or concepts they wish to review. Despite the advantages and widespread use of CALL, it continues to suffer from criticisms for several reasons. Many believe that learning and practicing grammar rules of a foreign language through fill-in-the-blank exercises, for example, does little to improve a speakers ability to produce grammatically appropriate utterances (Armstrong Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Others point out that CALL suffers from its rigidity in light of the complexities of natural languages. For example, a program designed to provide drill practice on French verb conjugation is useful for only that and nothing else. Recently, however, we are beginning to see encouraging and promising results in the area of CALL software development. Interactive video and programs which provide more authentic and communicative task-based activities are being created, which are more in line with the current theoretical and pedagogical views of learning. What is the Internet? While the computer is now used in some form or another in most language classrooms, and is considered standard equipment, the Internet is also gradually being introduced in the second language classroom as teachers become more familiar with it. The Internet is a confederation of thousands of computers from various sectors of society such as education, business, government and the military. It is a network of thousands of computer networks (Lewis, 1994). Each individual system brings something different to the whole (databases, library services, graphs, maps, electronic journals, etc), and the end result is a vast accumulation of information. It is a worldwide network of computers that interact on a standardized set of protocols which act independently of particular computer operating systems, allowing for a variety of access methods to the Internet. For example, the Internet can be accessed from an IBM computer in a students home in Australia, or from a Macintosh computer at a school in Canada. It can therefore be conceived of as the equivalent of a telephone system for computers. It can be used to both exchange information through electronic mail, newsgroups, listservs, professional on-line discussion groups, and so forth, as well as to retrieve information on a variety of topics through the World Wide Web. The Internet and Electronic Mail Although the Internet has been available to most people, only recently have educators been realizing the potential the Internet can have in second and foreign language classrooms. The following section will therefore consider some of these potential benefits and advantages of incorporating such technology in language courses. The Internet has been used by some language instructors in creative ways one of these innovations being use of electronic mail (e-mail), a specific feature of the Internet. Overall, e-mail can encourage students to use computers in realistic, authentic situations in order to develop communicative, and thinking skills. E-mail is easy to use and even teachers intimidated by computers can quickly become adept at using e-mail with their students. Furthermore, even timid or inhibited students can benefit from the meaningful interaction and communication e-mail makes possible. Kroonenberg (1995), for example, employed e-mail in her ESL classes at Hong Kong Internatio nal School. She relates her initial experiences of working with two classes of ESL multinational students in grades 9-12, and a homogeneous group of summer school students involving Cantonese-speaking 14 and 15 year olds. The Dragon Bulletin Board System (BBS) using the TELIX communications software was established in order to allow students and teachers to send messages to each other, as well as make public entries on discussion conferences.During the initial stages, students were logged on the system and each student created a password. Students were simply asked to write freely as in a dialogue journal. Kroonenberg (1995) believes this allows students to become familiar with the system and further allows their ideas to flow. Writing on e-mail can therefore be used to generate ideas about a topic, or can enable learners to free-write without any impositions. E-mail can also be used in various conference-type formats or to generate discussion. For example, Kroonenberg often provide d students with topics of high interest in order to generate more writing. In fact, one student who was part of this project stated, I usually get involved in the BBS because the subjects are interesting and I have a lot to say about them (p. 25). Writing topics often involved school issues or issues that were directly relevant to the students lives. In other conference assignments, students are the main audience. Students read entries and then respond to them via e-mail. This allows each student to express their opinion. In this manner, all opinions are voiced and heard, something which may not always occur in oral discussions in the classroom. Chat rooms can also be carried out through e-mail. In this situation, two or more individuals can talk on-line about various topics or issues. For instance, language learners can be paired up and can be given a debatable topic to discuss. Such experiences, once again stimulate authentic communication and assist students in developing specific communication skills such as arguing, persuading, or defending a particular point. Listservs from around the world can offer news and discussion groups in the target language providing another source of authentic input and interaction. Cononelos and Oliva (1993) organized e-mail exchanges between entire classes of students in order to generate discussion, improve writing skills, and promote peer interaction. In this particular project, advanced level Italian students employed e-mail newsgroups to improve both their writing, as well as their knowledge of contemporary Italian society. In this manner, the teaching of culture was also facilitated th rough the immediate feedback and contact of L2 speakers who were interested in informing others about their culture. E-mail can also be used to communicate long-distance with language learners in other schools, or other countries for that matter. A study exploring the potential of long-distance communication involving second language learners was carried out by Chang (1993). The goals of the study were to provide students with a real context for improving their writing, help them to expand their ideas of content-area reading and functional writing across cultural boundaries, make students familiar with international telecommunications, and investigate with students, the potential effects of telecommunications on literacy acquisition (Davis Chang, 1994). The subjects involved in the study included undergraduate students at Taiwans National Kaohsiung Normal University (NKNU) and students at University of North Carolina at Charlotte (UNCC). The 8-week teleconference began with Prompt 1 in which students were asked to write letters to one another. In addition to personal introductions, students were asked to include a focus on their previous English language learning experiences and the difficulties associated with this. In Prompt 2 and 3, students were asked to use their textbooks on the History of English Language to report on interesting uses of English, (ie. connotations, spelling, etc). Prompts 4 and 5 asked the learners to work with sections of specific texts to comment on pronoun and lexical use, as well as syntactic structure. In the final prompt, both groups of students collected examples of English slang and idioms used in each countrys films and music. Questions pertaining to the above were asked and responded to by students in each group. Davis and Chang (1994) point out that as writers on both sides of the world shared questions and comments, jokes began to surface. Over time, the students reading and writing began to change as well. Through surveys and informal case studies of student writing during the conference, it was found that for the most part, students writing had improved in both fluency and organization. Surveys also indicated that students saw some carry over to their study literature, and that they had a better understanding of English usage. While the above examples illustrate a few uses of e-mail in the second and foreign language classroom, without a doubt e-mail can provide authentic communication and can foster awareness of both the language learner and the languages they are learning. The Internet as a Teaching and Learning Tool In addition to the communication benefits of the Internet, the Internet can also be used to retrieve and access information. The World Wide Web is therefore a virtual library at ones fingertips; it is a readily available world of information for the language learner. While the Internet offers numerous benefits to the language learner, a few such possibilities are examined here, in the context of language learning.Perhaps one of the most essential pedagogical principles of language teaching is one that emphasizes the study of language in a cultural context. I, along with many other language instructors believe that language and culture are inextricable and interdependent; Understanding the culture of the target language enhances understanding of the language. To this end, the Internet is a valuable resource to both language teachers and learners. As discussed previously, e-mail on the Internet allows language learners to communicate with native speakers. In this manner, the Internet f acilitates the use of the specific language in an authentic setting. The Internet can also be used to acquire information from language resources for a variety of purposes. For example, students can access current information from countries around the world. They can obtain geographical, historical, social/cultural, economic, and political information from the countries in which the target language is spoken. Students can read web versions of daily newspapers and same-day news reports from sources such as the French Embassys gopher service, the daily Revue de Press (Armstrong and Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Such experiences can allow learners to participate in the culture of the target language, which in turn can enable them to further learn how cultural background influences ones view of the world. The Internet also serves as a medium for experiencing and presenting creative works. While students can peruse the information on the Net, they can also use it as a platform for their own work such as essays, poetry, or stories. Numerous public schools, for example, are making use of the World Wide Web for publishing student work which can be accessed by other web users. Students therefore become not only consumers of content, but in fact generate the content. As Mike (1996) describes, the use of the Internet has also been shown to promote higher order thinking skills. A language teacher, for example, may instruct learners to search for specific information. Searching the Web requires logic skills. Once information has been obtained, the results must be reviewed which requires scanning, discarding, and evaluative judgment on part of the learner. The information must be put together to make a complete and coherent whole which entails the synthesis process. Such an endeavor permits students to practice reading skills and strategies. The Internet also promotes literacy for authentic purposes, as stated previously. In addition to being a supplement to reading materials, especially current information, when students are exploring the Net, they are essentially exploring the real world. Such browsing or exploration can also lead to incidental learning as they encounter a variety of information in this way. Communication with native speakers furth ers literacy development for authentic purposes, enables language learners to compare student perspectives on an issue, and allows them to practice specific skills such as negotiating, persuading, clarifying meaning, requesting information, and engaging in true-life, authentic discussion. Promotion of literacy also occurs within a social context. The interaction that results from the above situations can lead to cooperative projects and increased communication between students from all over the world, in turn leading to the development of social skills. Finally, use of the Internet can promote computer skills and the technical and conceptual experiences of using a computer. Lastly, the Internet provides supplemental language activities which can provide students with additional practice in specific areas of language learning. These include reading tests and comprehension questions, grammar exercises, pronunciation exercises possible through the available multimedia capabilities, cloze tests, vocabulary exercises, and so forth. Students can search the Web for such sites, or teachers may recommend specific sites on the Web. Published lists are also available from various sources. For example, Paramskas (1993) offers a list of sites for both language teachers and language learners, some of which relate to issues of language learning, others which use language as a medium for discussion of culture or current affairs, and others which assist in locating native speakers. The Internet Challenges Up to this point in time, the above discussion has described some of the potential benefits of the Internet and how it can be used in the second or foreign language classroom. However, such a discussion would be incomplete without addressing the disadvantages or obstacles related to the use of the Internet in the language classroom. While the Internet and its various facets offer a great deal to the language learner, it is not without its problems. The nature of the Internet itself can be a disadvantage at times. When lines are busy due to many users, it may take time to access information or browse the Net and technical glitches themselves can lead to frustration. Lack of training and familiarity on part of the teachers can make it difficult to implement the Internet in the language classroom. This requires that school administrators budget for training in this area. Foreign language teachers are especially anxiety prone to computers since they often have little experience with comp uters. For the most part, computers in schools are used for business or computer science courses. Costs related to training, as well as on-line costs of using a provider are issues that may interfere with implementing such a technology in schools, especially in schools that have little funding. Censorship may also be a concern to language programs and instructors. The Internet offers access to all types of issues and topics, some of which are unsuitable for children, and this in itself may result in various problems. While some precautions can be taken at the present time, they are not full proof by any means. Equity issues may also present difficulties when attempting to implement such technology in the classroom. As the commercial sector begins to assume a more prominent role in the Internets infrastructure, rural and inner-city schools, already hard-pressed to provide Internet access, may find it less affordable. This is certainly discouraging for both language teachers and stude nts in such educational settings (Mike, 1996). Many institutions such as these may also not have the computers or computing facilities necessary to implement such type of technology. Implications and Conclusion Despite these limitations and obstacles, it must be realized that the Internets educational potential is immense. Although electronic, the Internet is an entity related to literacy people still interact with it entirely through reading and writing. For this reason alone, the Internet is a technology that will, without a doubt, have significant implications for both teaching and learning. So what does this imply for language teachers and learners? Teachers must become familiar with using the Internet and its various functions such as e-mail. They must also learn how to use specific search tools in order to access information, search for lesson plans, or material and ideas to supplement their lessons. Lastly, language teachers must learn now to transfer files from Internet sites to their own computer and vice versa. Obtaining information or literature on the Internet, either through the Net itself, through books, or by attending workshops and courses will further assist this process. To avoid facing the same difficulties or problems associated with use of the Internet, teachers can ask students to keep track of problems that arise during use. In essence, language teachers must take the plunge and approach the Internet as a learning experience themselves. The more enthusiastic and more knowledgeable language teachers are, the more successfully they can implement Internet in the language classroom. For the language learner, the Internet offers a world of information available to students at the touch of a button. While it must be recognized that the Internet cannot replace the language classroom or the interaction between the language teacher and student, if offers a vast amount of information and lends itself to communication possibilities that can greatly enhance the language learning experience.Certainly at this point in time, several questions need to be asked to guide future research in this area. How can use of the Internet correspond to the communicative or pedagogical goals of language teaching? How will the Internet and its related facets assist language learners in functioning in the global community? What will the real impact of the Internet in foreign language classrooms be? How can the Internet be used more effectively along side the present language curriculum? While these questions have been examined to some degree, researchers and language educators must further investigate and implement this technology to provide others with guidelines in this area. Without a doubt we are in the center of a monumental technological paradigm shift, one which will eventually change the way that all instructors teach and the way students learn (Jensen, 1993). While technology should not take over the language classroom, it must be embraced in order to allow educators to do those things which they are unable to do themselves, or those which will improve what is currently being done in the classroom. As we approach the next century, it is essential that we make informed decisions about how the Internet can be successfully integrated into the language classroom. If we as educators do not rise to the challenge who will?

Essay --

The Christian view of theology is found in two ways: general revelation and special revelation. General revelation is available to all people at all times and can be found in the nature and design of the entire universe. Special revelation is given to specific people at specific times and places and can be found in Christ and the Scriptures. These two types of revelation show something very important to the cornerstone of Christian theology, it shows that God is personal. Through the revelation it can be seen that God is self-aware, self-determining, and He has emotions, the characteristics of a person. Another key idea to Christian theology is the fact that God is triune, He exists in the Father, Son, and the Spirit. Each one of the three branches serves a different purpose, but all are equally important and equally powerful. Matthew 28:19 affirms the idea of the Trinity by saying â€Å"Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son , and of the Holy Ghost:†, mentioning every part of the trinity. God is a loving God who gave us His own Son in order to save us from our sins even though we didn’t deserve to be saved. Our Christian theology is based on this idea that Christ came and died for our sins, with this idea Christianity either stands or falls. Philosophy is also a major part in the Christian worldview even though some people use the first part of Colossians 2:8, which tells us not to be deceived by philosophy, as a way to say our faith doesn’t need to have reason and doesn’t have to be defended. These people negate the second part of the verse which says to not fall prey to philosophy based on man’s ideas. One question directed towards Christianity is the question of how is it po... ...volution in order to create humans. This idea however, is ridiculous and inefficient, and with an understanding Christians are able to defend the idea that God created all things. One of greatest arguments for Creationism is the idea of teleology, because there is design in the universe there must be a designer. We can see this in DNA, which has an incredible amount of order and information in just a small space, and functions as the blueprint for life. The gene pool is another thing that supports the idea of Creationism because it shows that macroevolution, not microevolution, is impossible. Creatures aren’t able to breed outside of their own gene pools, and we can see that this didn’t happen because of the many gaps in the fossil record. The Christian view of Creationism provides a good explanation for the origins of life, which points back to an all-powerful God.

How does J.B Priestley use dramatic devices in An Inspector Calls? Essa

Coursework How does J.B Priestley use dramatic devices in An Inspector Calls to convey his concerns and ideas to the members of the audience as well as interest and involve them in his play? 23rd, February 2005 The main theme of â€Å"An Inspector Calls† is responsibility. J.B Priestley wants to show the Birlings’ and the audience that we all share responsibility for other people’s welfare, and that wealthy people have obligations to look after those less fortunate than themselves. Priestley uses Inspector Goole to put across his views on society by portraying himself as a character. Through Inspector Goole Priestley is able to emphasize that with privileges come responsibilities to help others. In the 1930’s Priestley’s main concern was the social inequality in Britain. Priestly set up The Commonwealth Party in 1942. Their main arguments were public land ownership, greater democracy, and a new "morality" in politics. In 1945 Priestley’s party joined the labour party. Priestley was particularly influential in developing the idea of the Welfare State, this finally took place at the end of World War Two. The play is set in 1912 but was written and performed in 1945. This is significant as it allows J.B Priestley to make Mr. Birling seem even more ridiculous and naà ¯ve. For example, he mentions how there is not going to be a war, however by 1945 when the play was first performed the audience know that there were two wars between 1914 and 1945, World War One and World War Two, which began in 1939. Mr. Birling also mentions how the ship Titanic will not sink, ‘unsinkable, absolutely unsinkable’. Again in 1945 the audience know that Titanic did sink, consequently the things that Mr. Birling says, the audienc... ...stley is also conveying his ideas here. The audience would realise that everyone is responsible for each other. Priestley interests and involves the audience by having a lot of tension in the play â€Å"An Inspector Calls†. Priestley also interests them by having an exciting plot and a wide range of characters. He involves the audience by using dramatic irony very early on in the play and using characters to put across his concerns, such as the inspector in his speech tells the Birling’s "each of you helped to kill her." This is not only aimed at the characters on stage but at the audience too. Priestley’s message in â€Å"An Inspector Calls† is responsibility and how everyone is responsible for other people, we are all linked in society. This message is still relevant today because we still have responsibilities for other people and our actions do affect others.

Delay Planning Essay

Assignment 1 Part 1 1.Outline four areas within the above clause that could be identified as being unbalanced and give reasons why. I.The contractor gives the Superintendent, within 5 business days of when the Contractor should reasonably have become aware of that causation occurring, a written claim for an EOT evidencing the facts of causation and of the delay to WUC and any (Milestones). The reason for this being unbalanced is that 5 business days is too short of a time frame for the contractor to both collate all the relevant documents from certain people or organisations and then to write a formal claim also takes time especially if legal parties are involved. II.A comparison of the planned and as-executed critical path at the time when the delay occurred It is too difficult and unrealistic for the contractor to impact a delay into the construction programme without knowing the extent of the delay for example if a long lead item is delayed the contractor will have no idea on when the procurement item is due to arrive, the extent of the duration could affect the critical path in different ways III.If the contractor fails to give such a notice within the period required by this clause, the contractor shall have no claim arising out or in connection with any other delay. This is very extreme and is a link to the time frame of 5 days being a short term to provide evidence sometimes it is very hard and time consuming for the contactor to provide evidence even if the delays is actually present. IV.Or Subsequent delays from the original delay which should have been so notified. Each delay should be assessed on its own merit against the programme. 2.Rewrite the clause or those areas that you believe are unbalanced or unfair so that clause could be seen as evenly balanced towards all parties. Please refer to the relevant clause number above. I.The contractor gives the Superintendent, within 28 business days of when the Contractor should reasonably have become aware of that causation occurring, a written claim for an EOT evidencing the facts of causation and of the delay to WUC and any (Milestones). II.A comparison of the planned and as-executed critical path at the time when the delay seizes III.If the contractor fails to give notice within the period required by this clause, the contractor shall not be entitled to any claim until such information is provided. IV.Any subsequent delay from the original delay shall also require evidence prior to any EOT granted. Part 2 Provide a written explanation identifying how you as the contractor can ensure that they do not default on the contract addressing each point from A to E. Provide no more than half a page on each point.

Electrons The Building Blocks Of Science Environmental Sciences Essay

Electrons have been the cardinal component to many mystifiers in life ; if it were non for several doctors and their parts to the finds of different belongingss of the negatron, the scientific disciplines ( chemical science, biological science, and natural philosophies ) would non be the same. The earliest recorded experience with electricity ( apart from buoy uping ) was with the ancient Greeks who noticed that gold attracted little objects when rubbed with pelt. The history of negatrons has been a compile of little finds made by many doctors, yet the most noteworthy finds were made by Benjamin Franklin, Eugen Goldstein, J.J. Thompson, Neils Bohr, Gilbert Lewis, Wolfgang Pauli, and Thomas Young. Benjamin Franklin work with electricity led him to coin footings and suggest several theories affecting batteries, music directors, capacitors, charges, and discharges. He came up with the thought of â€Å" positive † and â€Å" negative † electricity holding â€Å" plus † and â€Å" subtraction † charges. He falsely thought electric flow was from positive to negative ; now we know the opposite is true. Yet, the thought of positive and negative charges builds the foundations of circuits. Through Franklin, we learn that charge flows from the high electromotive force terminus of the power supply through carry oning wires to the resistances, where the energy of the charges is used to make work, or is dissipated as heat. The charge so flows back to the low electromotive force terminus of the power supply by more wires. Charges besides emit an electric field, utilizing a voltmeter to find the strength and way of these Fieldss by mapping the electric potency of the field. From the possible field, the electric field can be determined. The electric field lines can be found by get downing at the positive electrode and following a way to the negative electrode so that the electric field lines ever cross the possible field lines at right angles. Cathode rays played a major portion of the find of subatomic atoms and their behaviour. In 1876, Eugen GoldsteinA discovered that discharge tubings with a pierced cathode besides emit a freshness at the cathode terminal, which was subsequently recognized as negatrons traveling from the negatively-charged cathode toward the positively-chargedA anode. He besides concluded that there was another beam that travels in the opposite way. They are composed of positive ions whose individuality depends on the residuary gas inside the tubing, which subsequently became portion of the footing forA mass spectroscopy. With the cathode beam, he besides discovered magnetic Fieldss exert a â€Å" crabwise † force on traveling charged atoms. That is, if a charged atom travels through a magnetic field, the field will exercise a force directed at right angles to the atom ‘s gesture. Charged atoms can be made to go in a circle by puting up a magnetic field. In 1896, J.J. Thomson and his colleaguesA performed experiments bespeaking that cathode beams truly were atoms, alternatively of moving ridges, atoms or molecules that many believed before. Thomson made a reasonably accurate estimation of both the chargeA eA and the massA m, happening that cathode beam atoms had around a one thousandth of the mass of hydrogen.A The e/m device in his lab generates a seeable beam of negatrons and directs the beam through a unvarying magnetic field. When high-velocity negatrons strike the atoms in the gas, the atoms give off a green colored visible radiation. This makes the beam seeable. Most negatrons in the beam do n't clash with any atoms, since the gas is really thin. But those that do demo the way the negatrons are taking. Electric currents create magnetic Fieldss. At the centre of the spirals, the B-field is approximately unvarying and directed analogues with the land. This causes the negatrons to turn. The radius of the circle will depend on the strength of the magnetic field B, the velocity of the atom V, and the atom ‘s mass. The strength of the B-field depends on the current in the spirals. By mensurating the radius of the beam ‘s round way, he found the mass of the negatron. A unit of ammunition glass vacuity tubing with a glowing round beam inside The edifice block of chemical science and bonding was explored as Niels Bohr explained a simplified version of the atom, now named Bohr Atom. It is non right, but it provides a utile manner to visualise spectra and their creative activity. A â€Å" cloud † of negatrons in â€Å" orbits † surrounds the highly bantam karyon. Atoms are characterized by a karyon: the cardinal, bantam, monolithic portion. Its charge is impersonal or none. The karyon is made up of positively charged protons and impersonal neutrons. Electron: the negatively charged atom that orbits the karyon of an atom.Photon: the smallest possible sum of E & A ; M energy of a peculiar wavelength. An atom consists of a little, heavy karyon surrounded by negatrons.He hypothesized that negatrons were in quantal energy provinces. In the atom the negatrons are normally in the â€Å" land province † , n = 1. This is the lowest energy province of the atom. If an negatron is excited ( such as by an electric c urrent in a neon tubing ) it will absorb a specific photon and move to a higher energy orbits or â€Å" aroused provinces † .Because energy in an atom is â€Å" quantal † , the negatron can merely travel to specific energy provinces ; most energy provinces are out. Each set of orbits for every component and compound is different from every other set. When an negatron in an component in a low-pressure gas province absorbs a photon of visible radiation it becomes excited, and it moves to a higher electronic energy province. Then it will spontaneously fall back to the lowest energy province possible, breathing the exact same wavelength photon it absorbed. Because merely distinct energy provinces are allowed, merely a few photons will excite the negatrons. Disintegrating back to the lowest energy province produces merely a few photons. Three homocentric circles about a karyon, with an negatron traveling from the 2nd to the first circle and let go ofing a photon This is an emanation spectrum. Since the wavelength is precise, the exact energies of the orbits are known from: Tocopherol = hc/l. After its excited the negatron will drop to a lower energy province by breathing a photon of precisely the same wavelength it absorbed. When it does that we can see the photon as a specific coloured line in the spectrum. EMISSION SPECTRA is the easiest spectra to analyze in the lab, but it is seldom found in stars. Some interstellar clouds and active galaxies have emanation spectra. EVERY ELEMENT AND EVERY MOLECULE HAS A DIFFERENT SPECTRA! The spectra from an unknown sample can be used to find all the elements and molecules within the sample. When there are many elements, near together, the energy degrees of the person atoms are spread out into energy sets. This consequences in a uninterrupted spectrum. Yet, Bohr ‘s theoretical account failed to account for the comparative strengths of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explicating the s pectra of more complex atoms. In 1924, Austrian physicistA Wolfgang PauliA observed that no more one negatron can busy the same quantum energy province. Therefore, the Pauli exclusion rule provinces that no two negatrons in an atom may busy the same energy province. Each negatron has an single â€Å" orbit † . These orbits are ruled by quantum mechanics. Chemical bonds between atoms were explained byA Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that aA covalent bondA between two atoms is maintained by a brace of negatrons shared between them.A Adhering between elements As with all atoms, negatrons can move as waves.It is impossible to detect both belongingss at the same clip in the same moving ridge. Einstein ‘s photoelectric experiment besides proved this dichotomy. Thomas Young ‘s dual slit experiment shows this wave-particle dichotomy, besides turn outing that visible radiation was a moving ridge. This experiment had profound deductions, finding most of 19th century natural philosophies and ensuing in several efforts to detect the quintessence, or the medium of light extension. Though the experiment is most noteworthy with visible radiation, the fact is that this kind of experiment can be performed with any type of moving ridge, such as H2O. Inactive Fieldss = imaging ( MRI, etc ) The history of negatrons has been a huge series of different doctors happening little spots of information about this unknown atom. If it were non for these finds of the belongingss of the negatron, we would non cognize how electric Fieldss work, the utilizations of a cathode beam, how elements bonded, the capablenesss of energy that come from atoms, and practical applications such as imaging. It would be good to research more on negatrons and be portion of the find as other doctors have done. Plants Cited Page Anderson, David L.A The Discovery of the Electron. New York: Arno, 1981. Buchwald, Jed Z. , and Andrew Warwick.A Histories of the Electron: the Birth of Microphysics. Cambridge, Mass. : Massachusetts institute of technology, 2001. Davis, Edward Arthur. , and Isobel J. Falconer.A J.J. Thomson and the Discovery of the Electron. London: Taylor & A ; Francis, 1997. McQuarrie, Donald A. , and John D. Simon.A Physical Chemistry: a Molecular Approach. Sausalito, Calif. : University Science, 1997. Parker, Barry R.A Albert Einstein ‘s Vision: Remarkable Discoveries That Shaped Modern Science. Amherst, N.Y. : Prometheus, 2004. Tipler, Paul Allen, and Gene Mosca.A Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 6th erectile dysfunction. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman, 2008. Weinberg, Steven.A The Discovery of Subatomic Particles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2003.